Essay --

Brooke JohnsonRuss TallchiefComp 1 T 530-80018 February 2014When I Grow Up I started showing an interest in nursing when I was about six stratums old, from all the stories my aunt told about being a Registered Nurse. When Greys Anatomy began airing in 2005, I heady I wanted to be like all those doctors. I wanted to wear the scrubs, and have a bunch of interns that listened to every word I intercommunicate and always did as I said. Of course, I never knew then that by 19 years old, I would actually be attending college and majoring in nursing.As high school seniors we sat through plenty of lectures about choosing a major and a university. I think that was when I really decided I wanted to so fartually become a Registered Nurse and major in nursing. Once I decided what I wanted to major in, I began thought process about specialties. There are hundreds of different specialties you could choose from, such as Cardiac Care Nurse, Health Policy Nurse, Genetics Nurse, Forensic Nurse, T oxicology Nurse, School Nurse, psychiatrical Nurse Practitioner, and many more. Out of all of the specialties I could have chosen I decided to become a PNP, which stands for Pediatric Nurse Practitioner. I get along the steps you have to take to become a Registered Nurse, but I would like to know information about becoming a PNP. In the question I have done, I have found out a lot of stuff I did not know before which has made me even more excited to become a Pediatric Nurse. A Pediatric Nurse is a nurse for infants all the way up to 17 year olds. Once you turn 18, you no longer go to a pediatric doctor/nurse since at 18 years of age you are legitimately considered an adult. A Pediatric Nurse Practitioner is a professional nurse trained to recognize differences between adults ... ...leted it should not be overly difficult to mention a job. I will finally be helping children and families, like I have dreamed of doing since I was little.Works CitedBomhak, Terri. Registered Nurse . Telephone. 15 February 2014.Rodgers, Chelsea. Pulmonology Nurse. Personnel Interview. 19 February 2014.Degree Requirements Bachelor of Science. School of Nursing. Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 2014. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. .Greenwood, Beth. Facts About Pediatric Nurse Practitioners. Chron. Demand Media, 2014. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. . Nurse Practitioner Programs. Nurse Practitioner Programs. N.p., 07 Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2014. .

Taser Technology Essay -- Law Enforcement Weapons

Taser TechnologyFor years law enforcement has been searching for more effective less(prenominal) deadly options to apprehend suspects. peerless of the newest technologies usable is the Taser, also known by industry standards as an electronic controlled device (ECD). The Taser uses electricity to override the rally neuronic system of rules, an effect referred to as neuro-muscular incapacitation (NMI), to driving force momentary incapacitation to allow officers to gain control of a subject.Electronic controlled devices basically use high voltage, low wattage electrical charges to induce in wilful go across contractions that provoke a subject to be temporarily incapacitated. The weapon system is designed to fire two probes, or darts, that atomic number 18 attached to insulated wires. When the probes make cutaneous senses with a person, the Taser will produce 50,000 volts of electricity, but only .0021 amps. According to Taser International, Inc. it is not the volts that are dangerous it is the amps. Volts are simply the rate the electricity is moving, but amps are the amount of money of current in the electricity. Taser International (2006) In 1993, two brothers, Rick and Tom Smith along, with Taser inventor Jack Cover, began working together on a non-lethal self-defence device. In 1994, they developed a non-firearm version of the Taser. This original Taser was known as a stun system, which used electricity to jam the central nervous system with electrical noise. This system used approximately five to fifteen watts of power and was more of a pain conformity device rather than overthrow the central nervous system.Two serious issues occurred with these stun systems The officer had to be up close to make contact with the subject and since it was a pain compliance device... ... Batons also tear skin, break bones and require officers to get up close to subjects to apprehend them. The Taser has a more effective rate than other less lethal optio ns with less chance of injury to all involved. ReferencesAmnesty International (2007) Amnesty International. (2007). USA Amnesty Internationals concerns about Taser use Statement to the US justice plane section inquiry into deaths in custody. doiAMR 51/151/2007 Taser International (2006). Instructor Certification Lesson Plan (Version 13.0 ed., Rev.). Scottsdale, Arizona Taser International. Vilke, G. M., Sloane, C., Levin, S., Neuman, T., Castillo, E., & Chan, Tc. (2008, January). Twelve-lead electrocardiogram monitoring of subjects before and after voluntary pic to the Taser X26. Retrieved from http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18082773?dopt=CitationTaser International (2006) Taser Technology Essay -- Law Enforcement WeaponsTaser TechnologyFor years law enforcement has been searching for more effective less lethal options to apprehend suspects. One of the newest technologies available is the Taser, also known by industry standards as an electronic controlled dev ice (ECD). The Taser uses electricity to override the central nervous system, an effect referred to as neuro-muscular incapacitation (NMI), to cause temporary incapacitation to allow officers to gain control of a subject.Electronic controlled devices basically use high voltage, low wattage electrical charges to induce involuntary muscle contractions that cause a subject to be temporarily incapacitated. The weapon system is designed to fire two probes, or darts, that are attached to insulated wires. When the probes make contact with a person, the Taser will produce 50,000 volts of electricity, but only .0021 amps. According to Taser International, Inc. it is not the volts that are dangerous it is the amps. Volts are simply the rate the electricity is moving, but amps are the measure of current in the electricity. Taser International (2006) In 1993, two brothers, Rick and Tom Smith along, with Taser inventor Jack Cover, began working together on a non-lethal self-defense device. In 1994, they developed a non-firearm version of the Taser. This original Taser was known as a stun system, which used electricity to jam the central nervous system with electrical noise. This system used approximately five to fifteen watts of power and was more of a pain compliance device rather than overriding the central nervous system.Two serious issues occurred with these stun systems The officer had to be up close to make contact with the subject and since it was a pain compliance device... ... Batons also tear skin, break bones and require officers to get up close to subjects to apprehend them. The Taser has a more effective rate than other less lethal options with less chance of injury to all involved. ReferencesAmnesty International (2007) Amnesty International. (2007). USA Amnesty Internationals concerns about Taser use Statement to the US Justice Department inquiry into deaths in custody. doiAMR 51/151/2007 Taser International (2006). Instructor Certification Lesson Plan (Version 13.0 ed., Rev.). Scottsdale, Arizona Taser International. Vilke, G. M., Sloane, C., Levin, S., Neuman, T., Castillo, E., & Chan, Tc. (2008, January). Twelve-lead electrocardiogram monitoring of subjects before and after voluntary exposure to the Taser X26. Retrieved from http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18082773?dopt=CitationTaser International (2006)

Interpretation of A Feminist View on Pornography Essay -- Critique Reb

Interpretation of A Feminist View on crock The word that I will be breaking down in the following paper is Pornography, Civil Rights, and Speech by Catherine A. MacKinnon. I guess the crush ara to start is to outlinely describe MacKinnon and her article. MacKinnon is a professor of law at the University of Michigan. The article deals with the affects of pornography on society. MacKinnon feels that some pornography should be illegal. Her reason out for this view is not that she finds it offensive, but rather that she considers it as a form of sexual discrimination. There are many different views on pornography ranging from the imprint that it is harmless fantasy all the way to it being a prime factor of the deterioration for society. MacKinnon says that pornography subordinates women and institutionalizes male supremacy. She even goes so far as to say that it is a political practice. Advocates of pornography claim its ultimate end to be pleasure, but MacKinnon says that the ac tual end is power. The article will attempt to essay a correlation between pornography and the violence taken against women, as well as their social and economic inequality. I feel that the article itself is under the weather written, but will attempt to make her points a little easier to understand. I feel the necessity to state that the feelings of the paper are that of my views on MacKinnons article. They are not my views and may in fact be, misinterpretations of her views. To spare us the confusion, I will rebut it with my views that pornography is harmless, at the end of the paper.The article starts with a brief passage on sexual equality in society. Her presentation of the argument is to explain it as if she agreed with it, only to refute it by say... ...hy. It is a musical genre in which men are completely subordinate, and women have all the power. Her article is so weak because it does not take that into account. I know that is only star case, but we have stated time an d again that philosophy must be consistent. If she cannot/does not take dominatrix into account, then her philosophy is inconsistent. To fully explain this article and pornography would require a lengthy paper that exceeds the requirements and purpose of this prcis. I will end my paper by saying that I believe everyone has a right to free speech and equality, and I appreciate the article for what it was worth, but I do not feel it is justifiable or pertinent to society. She bases her entire argument on an improvable correlation of pornography and sexual discrimination. Not to mention the fact that women also buy pornography. But that is a alone other prcis.

John Napier :: essays research papers

John Napier-John Napier was born in Merchiston Tower in Scotland, 1550. He was known as the Marvelous Merchiston, a title get for his genius and imaginative vision in a number of fields. Napier studied briefly at St. Andrews Universitybeginning at the age of 13. On his marriage in 1572, he was provided with an estate by his father, Sir Archibald Napier of Mechiston. He passed the remainder of his life as a land proprietor, devoting his free time to mathematics, invention, and theology. Napier died at Merchiston castle on April 14, 1617. outgrowth in about 1594, Napier worked for 20 years in developing ideas on logarithms and tables of logarithms. During this period he elaborated his systems whereby products, quotients, and roots could quickly be determined from his tables, which showed powers of 10 with a fixed number used as a base.Napiers system relied on the fact that all numbers can be denotative in exponential form. For instance, in a base 2 system, 4 can be written as 2 and 8 can be written as 2 , while 5, 6, and 7 can be written using some fractional exponent between 2 and 3. erst numbers were written in this exponential form, multiplication could be done basically by adding the exponents, and division could be done by subtracting the exponents. This considerably simplified computations such as trigonometric calculations used in astronomy.Napier finally published his tables of logarithms in 1614 in his Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (A description of the marvelous rule of logarithms) which also told the steps which had guide to their invention.In 1615 the English mathematician Henry Briggs talked with Napier, and together they developed the rules of Common logarithms, using 10 as a base. Briggs published his tables of Common logarithms in 1617.Napiers warrant published work on logarithms, the Mirifici Logarithmorum

Correcting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling Methods :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Correcting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling MethodsProfessors comment This students research stem describes developments and refinements in an effort to compensate for errors inherent in the DNA pooling methods employed in genetics research. I admire the clarity and efficiency with which she explains these developments. Introduction some(prenominal) genetic disorders have in time to be located on the human genome for reasons that include their multiple loci and incomplete penetrance. To pinpoint these loci in terms of particular regions of the chromosomes, linkup studies, which compare allelomorph absolute frequency between affected individuals (probands) and controls, must be performed across the entire human genome. With approximately 0.4 cMs between markers, 10,000 microsatellite markers would be necessary to to the full saturate the genome (Collins et al., 2000). For a lead of 1000 probands and 1000 controls, 20 million genotypings would be required (Collins et al., 2000). Because of the relative impossibility of such a task, a proficiency called DNA pooling has been developed. DNA pooling involves the concoction of equal amounts of DNA from each individual in a group and then proceeding as maven would with individual samplesby performing a PCR and running the samples out on a gel. DNA pooling can determine total allelomorph content of a group, for one microsatellite, without the need to individually genetic constitution each individual in that group. As such, it is an effective way to decrease the number of genotypings required, reducing the workload by factors of tens or hundreds. Although the benefits of DNA pooling are immense, deuce significant sources of error must be addressed. The first, known as stutter peaks, results from a slippage of the DNA polymerase during the PCR counterpunch process. Stutter peaks turn out as progressively small peaks before each real allele peak and result in artificially inflated values for th e smaller allele sizes. This error is consistent and logical for a particular marker (Perlin et al., 1995). The other major source of error is caused by preferential amplification of some alleles everywhere others. In this situation, uneven PCR replication and amplification result from the differing sizes of the fragments being replicated. Over the years, several methods have been developed to overcome these sources of error, making DNA pooling a functional method of screening for disease loci. Early Methods for Stutter Correction LeDuc et al. (1995) developed one of the first methods to correct for the stutter artifact by measuring the allele and stutter peak senior high for the smallest allele of the pool and any allele not immediately adjacent to other alleles.Correcting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling Methods explorative Essays Research PapersCorrecting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling MethodsProfessors comment This students research paper describes developments and refinements in an effort to correct for errors inherent in the DNA pooling methods employed in genetics research. I admire the clarity and efficiency with which she explains these developments. Introduction Many genetic diseases have yet to be located on the human genome for reasons that include their multiple loci and incomplete penetrance. To pinpoint these loci in terms of particular regions of the chromosomes, association studies, which compare allele frequency between affected individuals (probands) and controls, must be performed across the entire human genome. With approximately 0.4 cMs between markers, 10,000 microsatellite markers would be necessary to fully saturate the genome (Collins et al., 2000). For a study of 1000 probands and 1000 controls, 20 million genotypings would be required (Collins et al., 2000). Because of the relative impossibility of such a task, a technique called DNA pooling has been developed. DNA pooling involves the mixing of equal amounts of DNA from each individual in a group and then proceeding as one would with individual samplesby performing a PCR and running the samples out on a gel. DNA pooling can determine total allele content of a group, for one microsatellite, without the need to individually genotype each individual in that group. As such, it is an effective way to decrease the number of genotypings required, reducing the workload by factors of tens or hundreds. Although the benefits of DNA pooling are immense, two significant sources of error must be addressed. The first, known as stutter peaks, results from a slippage of the DNA polymerase during the PCR replication process. Stutter peaks appear as progressively smaller peaks before each real allele peak and result in artificially inflated values for the smaller allele sizes. This error is consistent and reproducible for a particular marker (Perlin et al., 1995). The other major source of error is caused by preferential amplification of some alleles over others. In this situation, uneven PCR replication and amplification result from the differing sizes of the fragments being replicated. Over the years, several methods have been developed to overcome these sources of error, making DNA pooling a practical method of screening for disease loci. Early Methods for Stutter Correction LeDuc et al. (1995) developed one of the first methods to correct for the stutter artifact by measuring the allele and stutter peak heights for the smallest allele of the pool and any allele not immediately adjacent to other alleles.

Correcting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling Methods :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Correcting for Errors inseparable in desoxyribonucleic acid Pooling MethodsProfessors comment This bookmans research account describes developments and refinements in an effort to correct for errors inherent in the DNA pooling methods employed in genetics research. I admire the lucidity and efficiency with which she explains these developments. Introduction more genetic diseases have yet to be located on the human genome for reasons that include their multiple loci and incomplete penetrance. To pinpoint these loci in terms of particular regions of the chromosomes, knowledge studies, which compare allelomorph frequency amidst affected individualists (probands) and controls, must be performed across the entire human genome. With approximately 0.4 cMs between markers, 10,000 microsatellite markers would be necessary to to the full saturate the genome (Collins et al., 2000). For a study of 1000 probands and 1000 controls, 20 million genotypings would be required (Collins et al., 2000). Because of the relative impossibility of such a task, a technique called DNA pooling has been developed. DNA pooling involves the mixing of equal amounts of DNA from each individual in a group and then legal proceeding as star would with individual samplesby performing a PCR and running the samples out on a gel. DNA pooling can determine total allelomorph content of a group, for one microsatellite, without the need to individually genotype each individual in that group. As such, it is an effective way to decrease the number of genotypings required, bring down the workload by factors of tens or hundreds. Although the benefits of DNA pooling are immense, two significant sources of error must be addressed. The first, known as stutter peaks, results from a slippage of the DNA polymerase during the PCR replication process. Stutter peaks wait as progressively smaller peaks before each real allele peak and result in artificially increase values for the smaller all ele sizes. This error is consistent and reproducible for a particular marker (Perlin et al., 1995). The other major source of error is caused by prejudiced amplification of some alleles all over others. In this situation, uneven PCR replication and amplification result from the differing sizes of the fragments being replicated. Over the years, several methods have been developed to overcome these sources of error, qualification DNA pooling a practicable method of screening for disease loci. Early Methods for Stutter Correction LeDuc et al. (1995) developed one of the first methods to correct for the stutter artifact by measuring the allele and stutter peak heights for the smallest allele of the pool and any allele not immediately adjacent to other alleles.Correcting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling Methods Exploratory Essays Research PapersCorrecting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling MethodsProfessors comment This students research paper describes developments and re finements in an effort to correct for errors inherent in the DNA pooling methods employed in genetics research. I admire the clarity and efficiency with which she explains these developments. Introduction Many genetic diseases have yet to be located on the human genome for reasons that include their multiple loci and incomplete penetrance. To pinpoint these loci in terms of particular regions of the chromosomes, association studies, which compare allele frequency between affected individuals (probands) and controls, must be performed across the entire human genome. With approximately 0.4 cMs between markers, 10,000 microsatellite markers would be necessary to fully saturate the genome (Collins et al., 2000). For a study of 1000 probands and 1000 controls, 20 million genotypings would be required (Collins et al., 2000). Because of the relative impossibility of such a task, a technique called DNA pooling has been developed. DNA pooling involves the mixing of equal amounts of DNA from each individual in a group and then proceeding as one would with individual samplesby performing a PCR and running the samples out on a gel. DNA pooling can determine total allele content of a group, for one microsatellite, without the need to individually genotype each individual in that group. As such, it is an effective way to decrease the number of genotypings required, reducing the workload by factors of tens or hundreds. Although the benefits of DNA pooling are immense, two significant sources of error must be addressed. The first, known as stutter peaks, results from a slippage of the DNA polymerase during the PCR replication process. Stutter peaks appear as progressively smaller peaks before each real allele peak and result in artificially inflated values for the smaller allele sizes. This error is consistent and reproducible for a particular marker (Perlin et al., 1995). The other major source of error is caused by preferential amplification of some alleles over o thers. In this situation, uneven PCR replication and amplification result from the differing sizes of the fragments being replicated. Over the years, several methods have been developed to overcome these sources of error, making DNA pooling a practical method of screening for disease loci. Early Methods for Stutter Correction LeDuc et al. (1995) developed one of the first methods to correct for the stutter artifact by measuring the allele and stutter peak heights for the smallest allele of the pool and any allele not immediately adjacent to other alleles.

Restricted Fund Methods

confine Fund Method * Organizations that follow restricted ancestry method present a ecumenical farm animal and angiotensin converting enzyme or more restricted blood lines. * The main purpose of the restricted breed is to record the reception and the use of the resources from that fund that are subject to restrictions. * This method requires that a general fund be used to report changes in unrestricted net assets. light of endowment contributions * The endowments contributions are recognized as revenue of the endowment fund in the current period. The only revenue that is reported in the endowment fund is the endowment contribution and the net investment income that is subject to external restrictions. * Any allocation of internal resources to the endowment fund would be accounted for as interfund transfers. * The endowment fund balance at the end represents the accumulation of resources subject to both external and internal restrictions and they should be permanently mainta ined. * Net investment income earned on resources held for endowments would be recognized based on if the investment income is restricted or not.Recognition of Restricted Contributions reported in restricted funds * Restricted contribution for which a restricted fund is present should be recognized as revenue of that fund in the current period. * There can be more than one restricted fund. However, each restricted fund would accumulate resources that are restricted for similar purposes. * Contributions that are restricted should be accounted for the same way on reconciled basis. A change in restricted fund is considered to be a change in accounting policy. The restricted fund balance at the account date represents the accumulation of resources that are subject to restrictions. * Any allocations of internally restricted resources to a restricted fund are known as interfund transfers. Recognition of Restricted Contributions reported in General funds * Restricted Contributions for wh ich no restricted fund is present should be recognized in general fund. * The general fund accounts purpose is to account for both unrestricted revenues and restricted contributions for which there is no restricted fund.The restricted contribution reported in general fund would be recognized in the same manner as under deferral method. * If the organization decides to establish a fund for a limited restricted contribution it would be considered a change in accounting policy. The financial statements of the previous years would have to be restated if similar contributions for which the fund is completed had been reported in general funds in prior years.Recognition of nonsensitive Contributions * They should be recognized as revenue of the general fund in current period. * The unrestricted contributions are available for use to the organization. The excess of revenues over expenses in the general fund represents the increase in unrestricted net assets. * Unrestricted resources may b e allocated to a restricted fund and this would be considered an interfund transfer.

Pschological assessment Essay

section AWrite an essay on the process you would chase in developing a psychological judicial decision heartbeat out. hold forth the locomote that you would take in this process, including how you would choose items for your bear witness, how you would evaluate the reliability and validity of your turn up, and the issue of establishing norms. Discuss the theory comprehensively and illustrate your understanding with an example or examples. IntroductionThe process of developing a psychological assay is a complex and protracted one. ( Foxcroft & Roodt, 2001) but aspects related to the planning of a psychological test atomic number 18 non ever much sufficiently emphasised and nightimes not mentioned at tout ensemble ( Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1997). When the test is to be utilize in a multicultural context, attention inescapably to be paid to the cultural relevance (and potential bias) of the test just from the planning and design phase instead of only being sensitive to cu ltural aspects from the item writing phase onwards.Also given that we do not induct a long history of developing culturally appropriate tests applicable to diverse assemblages in South Africa, test developers pack to grapple with base issues such as what methods of test administration might be appropriate or inappropriate for certain cultural groups and what language to develop the test in, for example. to a greater extent time unavoidablenesss to be washed-out in the planning phase exploring and critically considering test design issues.Planning phaseThe first and most fundamental step in developing psychological measures is the planning phase. Planning involves writing out the skeleton of what one aims to achieve. C beful though needs to go into deciding on the aim of the measure, defining the content of the measure and key elements of the test plan. a test plan consists of the fol abjecting aspects (a) specifying the purpose and rationale for the test as well as the intend ed target population, (b) defining the make out (content domain) and creating a set of test specifications to guide item writing, (c) choosing the test format, (d) choosing the item format, and (e) specifying the administration and hit methods (Robertson, 1990).Specifying the aim of the measureThe first step is to state the aim of the measure, the construct I depart expend and how the outcome will be used. If I am conducting this study in South Africa I will besides need to mention that the measure will be used in a multicultural cab atomic number 18t. I would need to elaborate on what I mean by multicultural by highlighting the context. I would state the age of the test takers and their educational status. The information concluded above is important because it may have an impact on the test specifications and design. I would need to state whether the test would be paper-based or computer-based.When that decision is made I would need to consider whether the test-takers are fa miliar with such tests. The test takers may underperform on the military rating because they are not proficient in the instrument of measure. This may impact the validity of the study to be conducted. I would also need to ascertain whether the test will be administered individually or in a group setting.Because psychological constructs are brewed in western societies, the emphasis is on individualism. When working in a multicultural society, however, it is important to consider the norms of the society I would be working in. In some cultures, for example, the group identity is valued over the individual identity. This could have an onus on the content of the measure. Defining the content of the measureHere I need to figure out what I want to measure and why. This will evince me what to focus on during the other steps. A working definition of the construct is needed. This includes identifying exactly what I aim to get out of this research study. To do this I need to embark on a co mprehensive literature review. I will see how my topic has been investigated in the past and spot the gaps. I flush toilet now make the decision on whether I am conducting a new study or adapting an existing study into the South African context. later(prenominal) I will need to make the same decision on the instrument I will use for data gathering. Since I would be working in South Africa, I need to decide on whether separate norms should be developed for test takers from advantaged and disadvantaged schooling backgrounds and/or for urban and farming(prenominal) areas. I would assemble a team of content, language and cultural experts to scrutinise the content being developed. Nell (1994) states thatlanguage is a critical moderator variable of test performance.If the test taker is not proficient in that language, it is difficult to ascertain whether poor performance is due to language or communication difficulty or that the test-taker has a low level of the construct being measured . I would produce the test in a bilingual format and specify the inception language. Work would need to be done to ensure that the construct is meaningful for each group. Developing the test plan (specifications)Once the construct to be assessed has been defined and operationalised, a decision needs to be reached regarding what approach will be employed to guide the development of the test content and specifications. Decisions will be made regarding the format to be used (open-ended items, forced-choice items etc.), how they will be scored (objective or subjective tests), and whether time limits will be imposed. The language and cultural experts are once again needed during this step.Sometimes psychological constructs, conceptualised in western society, do not have a known equivalent in African discourse. For such constructs the translated mutation would need to explain the construct in a way that is closest to the English meaning. This will require more time for the African langu age test taker. The test specification should return the possibility of construct bias. The format therefore needs to be standardised for a variety of cultural groups or it should at least include items that will be considered easy, moderate and difficult by all groups.Although these steps follow after each other, I will need to go backwards and in the lead to ensure content and construct validity.Item writingThe second step is item writing. Once the test specifications have been lastised, the team of experts writes or develops the items. The trend in South Africa has been to simply adapt an already made test to accommodate South African test takers. This is not necessarily the easier option. Firstly, concepts are not always understood in the same way in different societies. For example, the term depression is sometimes taken to mean withvery sad in some societies. It is therefore important to ensure construct validity even for an English test given to English mother tongue speak ers of a different society to that of the tests origin.If the assessment measure will be administered to children, face validity will be ensured through the use of big writing, use of colour and drawings. The length of the items should also be considered. With every step of items writing reliability is ensured.Reviewing the itemsAn item bank is then developed and items reviewed in terms of whether they meet the content specification and whether they are well written. Items which do not meet the specifications are removed from the bank before it can be used to generate criteria-referenced tests. The team of experts should focus on both content validity and indicate whether the items are from stereotyping and potential bias. The experts will then return the item list with recommendations. They will need to be re-written or revised.Assembling and pre-testing the experimental version of the measureItems need to be arranged in a logical way. Since we are dealing with a multicultural soci ety, we need to ensure that the items are balanced and on appropriate pages. The length of the items in each category needs to be finalised. For long problems based items, time adjustments need to be made. A decision would have been made with regards to whether the test is paper-based or computer-based. The appropriate apparatus needs to be made available. ThePre-testing the experimental version of the measureThe test items have to be administered to a large group of examinees. This example should be representative of the population for which the eventual test is intended. This will be the norm group.Items analysis phaseDuring this phase items are checked for relevance. Again we see if each item is reliable and valid to the study. The characteristics of the items can be evaluated using the sheer test theory or the item response theory. At the item level, the CTT poser is relatively simple. CTT does not invoke a complex theoretical model to relate an examinees ability to success o n a particular item. Instead, CTT collectively considers a pool of examinees and empirically examines their success rate on an item (assuming it is dichotomously scored).This success rate of a particular pool of examinees on an item, well known as the p value of the item, is used as the index for the item difficulty (actually, it is an inverse indicator of item difficulty, with higher value indicating an easier item). The ability of an item to discriminate between higher ability examinees and take down ability examinees is known as item discrimination, which is often expressed statistically as the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between the scores on the item (e.g., 0 and 1 on an item scored right-wrong) and the scores on the total test. When an item is dichotomously scored, this estimate is often computed as a point-biserial correlation coefficient.IRT, on the other hand, is more theory grounded and models the probabilistic distribution of examinees success at the i tem level. As its name indicates, IRT primarily focuses on the item-level information in contrast to the CTTs master(a) focus on test-level information. The IRT framework encompasses a group of models, and the applicability of each model in a particular situation depends on the nature of the test items and the viability of different theoretical assumptions about the test items.Revising and standardizing the final version of the measureOnce the qualitative and quantitative information has been gathered, the test is administered to the large sample for standardization. All the items that were found to be unclear are simplified. Vocabulary and grammar is corrected. Split-half reliability is assessed. The translated version is checked through back translation (into the source language). The items are finalised for the test. The final database is used to check on reliabilityand validity. The administration and scoring instruction may need to be modified. Then the final version is admini stered.Technical evaluation and establishing normsThe items can be analysed using the item response theory. The characteristics of each item may be represented chartically be means of a graph which relates an individuals ability score with their probability of passing the items. Items with large variances are selected. The scores obtained by the norm group in the final test form are referred to as the norms of the test. To compare an individuals score with the norms, their raw score will be converted to the same kind of derived score as that in which the test norms are reported (e.g. percentile ranks, McCalls T scores etc). Publishing and ongoing refinementsA test manual is compiled before a measure published. The manual should make information on the psychometric properties of the test easily understandable. It will be updated from time to time as more information becomes available.Section BList the steps that should be followed in the adaption of an assessment measure for cross-c ultural application and briefly explain what each step means. 1. Reasons for adapting measuresCross-cultural assessment has become a sensitive issue due to specific concerns regarding the use of standardized tests across cultures.By adapting an instrument, the researcher is able to compare the already-existing data with saucily acquired data, thus allowing for cross-cultural studies both on the national and international level. Adaptations also can conserve time and expenses (Hambleton, 1993). Test adaptation can lead to change magnitude fairness in assessment by allowing individuals to be assessed in the language of their choice (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995).2. Important considerations when adapting measuresThe test can be compromised if there are problems between the test takers and the administrator. The administrator should therefore familiar with the culture of the test-taker. They cannot take it for granted that the test taker will be exposed to the format of the test. This coul d lead to the score representing a lack of skill with regards to the format of the test instead of measuring the construct being assessed. Some languages, like isiZulu, require more time to be spent reading therefore would require more time to complete.3. Designs for adapting measuresBefore selecting an assessment instrument for use in counseling or research, counselors and researchers are trained to moderate that the test is appropriate for use with their population. This includes investigation of validity, reliability, and appropriate norm groups to which the population is to be compared. Validity and reliability take on additional dimensions in cross-cultural testing as does the question of the appropriate norm group. The instrument must(prenominal) be validly adapted, the test items must have conceptual and linguistic equation, and the test and the test items must be bias free (Fouad, 1993 Geisinger, 1994).Two basic methods for test adaptation have been identified in front t ranslation and back-translation. In forward translation, the pilot film test in the source language is translated into the target language and then bilinguals are asked to compare the original version with the adapted version (Hambleton, 1993 1994). In back-translation, the test is translated into the target language and then it is re-translated back to the source language. This process can be repeated several times. Once the process is complete, the final back-translated version is compared to the original version (Hambleton, 1994). Each of these adaptation processes has their strengths and limitations.4. Bias analysis and differential item functioningAnother issue that must be considered in cross-cultural assessment is test bias. The test user must ascertain that the test and the test items do not systematically discriminate against one cultural group or another. Test biasmay occur when the contents of the test are more familiar to one group than to another or when the tests have differential predictive validity across groups (Fouad, 1994). Culture plays a significant role in cross-cultural assessment.Whenever tests developed in one culture are used with another culture there is the potential for misinterpretation and stagnation unless cultural issues are considered. Issues of test adaptation, test equivalence and test bias must be considered in order to fully utilize the benefit of cross-cultural assessment.5. Steps for maximizing success in test adaptionHembleton (2004) summarised nine key steps that should be addressed when adapting or translating assessment instruments.6. Challenges related to test adaption in south AfricaA disadvantage of adaptation includes the risk of imposing conclusions based on concepts that exist in one culture but may not exist in the other. There are no guarantees that the concept in the source culture exists in the target culture (Lonner & Berry, 1986).Another disadvantage of adapting existing tests for use in another culture is that if certain constructs measured in the original version are not found in the target population, or if the construct is manifested in a different manner, the resulting scores can prove to be misleading (Hambleton, 1994). Despite the difficulties associated with using adapted instruments, this practice is important because it allows for greater generalizability and allows for investigation of differences among a growing diverse population. Once the test has been adapted, test equivalence must be determined.ReferenceFoxcroft, C.D. & Roodt, G. (2009). An introduction to psychological assessment in South Africa. Johannesburg Oxford University PressHambleton, R. K. (2001). The next generation of the ITC Test Translation and Adaptation Guidelines. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 164-172.Hambleton, R. K. (2004). Issues, designs, and technical guidelines for adapting tests into multiple languages and cultures. In R. K. Hambleton, P. F. Merenda, & C. D. Spielberger (E ds.), Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment (pp. 3-38). Mahwah,NJ Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesVan Ede, D.M. (1996). How to adapt a measuring instrument for use with various cultural groups a practical step-by-step introduction. South African Journal of Higher Education, 10, 153-160.

Nectar In A Sieve & Don’t Be Afraid Gringo

The relationship between core and periphery nations can be observed by looking at the experiences of the people in the books, ragweed In A Sieve by Kamala Merkandaya and Dont Be Afraid Gringo by Media Benjamin. In both the books Rukmani and Elvia narrate the changes caused by the unhomogeneous stages of capitalism brought by enceinte Britain in India and by the United States in Honduras respectively. The core periphery relations between these countries lead to many societal problems and these two women deal with these problems, especially the issues pertaining to pop and education.In both Rukmani and Elvias occurrence land was the closely important resource required for producing staples, which was used as a source of revenue and food. Education, in this consideration refers to the level of awareness people had astir(predicate) the influence of core countries on the peripheral nations and how the people viewed this dependency. Rukmani and her family bed under a feudalistic system and the arrival of the British tannery resulted in segregated industrialization in a rice farming colonization which led to family disintegration, abuse of power and land and to a minor shine in feudalism.It similarly led to a shift from peasantry to proletariats. Elvia lived in a semi-feudalistic system in Honduras with highly unequal distribution of land and wealth. The whole of Honduras, including various institutions like the Government and the church were under the influence of the U. S who with their political and economic influence used Honduras for the extraction of resources and also for its avouch political hostage in the North American continent. In Nectar In A Sieve Rukmani was married to a tenant farmer called Nathan who worked on rice palm and earned his livelihood by selling his harvest to the landlord.He did non have his own land and so whatever he earned went towards paying for the rent on land. Most of the villagers there, including Nathan were tena nt farmers who produced for their own basic needs and not for the market. The village put up a leather tannery in Rukmanis village whose arrival led to segregated industrialization and also to a change in feudalism. Rukmani and the whole villages life were affected, as their village became a growing townspeople (Merkandaya 50) The tannery owners bought the land from the landlords and paid good prices for it.This segregated industrialization weakened the unification of the village and caused great turmoil for everyone, especially Rukmani and her family. It disintegrated her family by creating a need for her sons to go work in the tannery. The expansion of the tannery also led to a loss in user rights as many people, including Rukmani and her family was kicked off the land they used to live on for years, with nowhere to turn to. Thus they were forced to go to an urban city and become proletariats.Arrival of colonialism in the village led to capitalism, while retentivity the feudalism intact. Though both systems worked simultaneously, capitalism slowly outdid feudalism as the tannery grew and flourished and spread(51), it got the power and became economically prosperous which allowed the expansion of the tannery. Capitalism in the village changed virtually of the villagers from peasants to semi proletariats as they started working in the tannery. On the other hand the cost of living went up and so did the level of poverty cod to partial urbanization.The tannery extracted the resources using cheap and surplus labor and repatriated the profits for capitalistic accumulation and deprived the village of if. In Dont Be Afraid Gringo, Elvia Alvarado talks about(predicate) the lives of the campesinos living in Honduras. She was a poor peasant living in a unsophisticated village and belonged to a very poor family that could neer own land. Most of Elvias life revolved around social work and helping the fellow campesinos who were facing harsh times due to the influenc e of the core.Elvia was proactive and resisted to changes brought about by the powerful selected of their society. So her primary job was to recover land which rightfully belonged to the campesinos but was in the hands of a few elite who were using it for their own benefit. Education as described later in the essay created awareness about the injustices through with(p) by the powerful elite and helped in her fight for recovering land for the campesinos. The campesinos depended on land, as it was the primary source of food and revenue. Staples produced in Honduras were exported to the U.S markets at very low prices. The U. S had also monopolized capital by bringing technology into Honduras but this was only being used to extract resources. This resulted in unemployment as automated machines as in the case of the banana companies replaced manual labor. Honduras was under a semi feudal mode of production with an unequal distribution of land. Although capitalism was pre direct in urba nized areas, most of the land was under feudal control with peasants fighting for land which was taken away from them.The government did not do anything to make the campesinos life any easier. (Benjamin 25) The rural areas did not have god transportation and bringing the harvests to the markets was very difficult. Campesinos without land worked as day laborers, either for a landowner or for another campesino(Benjamin 20) for marginal wages. U. S using its influence on the Honduran government and the local elite extracted some precious resources like coal and precious gems and the profits associated with them were never reinvested in Honduras.The U. S also used Honduran land for maintaining regional security. Using Honduras strategic position in Central America, they established military bases and sent troops to Honduras to help government maintain internal control. The societal issue of education brought about by the core periphery relationships in both Rukmani and Elvias life, in this context deals with the level of awareness both women and their respective societies have about the influence of core nations and their dependence on them.Although Rukmani was semi literate and could read and write, she was not well versed with what was happening around her. She was a very passive resistor and never offered any resistance to the development of capitalism. She foresaw the implications of capitalism by the arrival of the tannery and the dependency associated with it. Therefore she wanted to give all her children education because she knew education was the only thing that could make her children realize the effects of dependence on core.Her trauma along with the suffering of the other villagers shows the lack of awareness they had about the harmful effects of the British colonization. Elvia only received proper schooling till the sustain grade and so she was basically illiterate but she always had the inclination to learn. As she grew up, she became aware of the harmful effects of Hondurans dependency on the U. S and how capitalism from the part of the U. S in Honduras was robbing the resources out of Honduras. Although she never had proper schooling, the eagerness to learn about the current affairs made her more and more inquisitive.Elvia took some courses with the church and then started working as a social worker that traveled to different places and created awareness about general issues pertaining to their lives and society. She also took some courses from the agricultural Reform Institute, which greatly improved her writing skills. Later on in her life, when the church also influenced by the Honduran government that was under the influence of the U. S reduced the support to her group, she became independent and began educating and organizing the campesinos to fight for their rights.She began recovering land that belonged to the campesinos but was in the hands of the elite. Her knowledge of the Agrarian Reform Laws helped her fight w ith the government for the injustices done to the campesinos. She was thus able to recognize monopoly capitalism by the U. S as being the cause of poverty in Honduras. Looking at the argument presented in this essay it can be seen that both Rukmani and Elvias lives were greatly affected by the effects of core periphery relations and they faced great problems with issues of land and education.

Agency problem and its solutions

Principal- divisor relationship occurs when a principal contr arranges an agent. The principal hires the agent to perform a service for him or to act on his behalf. For example, in a mountainous corporation, stockholders would hire managers to help them to organize the company in dairy business. However, agency problems may arise because of the conflict interest and asymmetry information amid principals and agents, which eliminate to agency be. In this essay, I would standardized to use the agency theory introduced by Jensen and Meckling (1976) to analysis that to what extent that agency cost would damage shareholders wealth maximisation and what actions shareholders could dispense to correct it.Agency problems and main causes of itFirst of all, in that location might to conflicts of interest or different goals between principals and agents, the agent would act as their trump self-interest but not principals. Secondly, there is asymmetry information between principals and ag ents, managers may thrust more information than principals or they could hide their actions. Thirdly, there is uncertainty in the outcome. The outcome may not just depend on managers effort but also other factors like good flock or high markets expectation lead to increase in share price.Agency costsAgency cost incurred when the managers do not try on to maximise dissolutes value and the cost to monitor manager and constrain their behaviours. Agency cost is the sum of three types of costs, cost of designing the contract, cost of enforcing the contract (monitoring and bonding) and sleep loss if contract is not optimal.Solutions of agency problems Monitoring Management compensation Incentive compensationThere are two major principal agent model, adverse option and moral hazard. Adverse selection occurs when one of the parties, usually theagent, has better relevant information prior to the contract. This hidden information will be used opportunistically to optimise the utility g ained from entering the contract. In moral hazard the principal is unable to observe the agents actions after signing the contract. This causes the agent not to take the full consequences of his actions and gum olibanum he can use this hidden information to act opportunistically and maximize his own profit. In most cases the principal will have to carry the costs of this behaviour.Agency problem and its solutionsIntroductionPrincipal-agent relationship occurs when a principal contracts an agent. The principal hires the agent to perform a service for him or to act on his behalf. For example, in a large corporation, shareholders would hire managers to help them to organize the company in dairy business. However, agency problems may arise because of the conflict interest and asymmetry information between principals and agents, which lead to agency costs. In this essay, I would like to use the agency theory introduced by Jensen and Meckling (1976) to analysis that to what extent that a gency cost would damage shareholders wealth maximisation and what actions shareholders could take to correct it. Agency problems and main causes of it.First of all, there might to conflicts of interest or different goals between principals and agents, the agent would act as their best self-interest but not principals. Secondly, there is asymmetry information between principals and agents, managers may have more information than principals or they could hide their actions. Thirdly, there is uncertainty in the outcome. The outcome may not just depend on managers effort but also other factors like good luck or high markets expectation lead to increase in share price.Agency costsAgency cost incurred when the managers do not attempt to maximise firms value and the cost to monitor manager and constrain their behaviours. Agency cost is the sum of three types of costs, cost of designing the contract, cost of enforcing the contract (monitoring and bonding) and residual loss if contract is no t optimal.Solutions of agency problems Monitoring Management compensation Incentive compensationThere are two major principal agent model, adverse selection and moral hazard. Adverse selection occurs when one of the parties, usually theagent, has better relevant information prior to the contract. This hidden information will be used opportunistically to optimize the utility gained from entering the contract. In moral hazard the principal is unable to observe the agents actions after signing the contract. This causes the agent not to take the full consequences of his actions and thus he can use this hidden information to act opportunistically and maximize his own profit. In most cases the principal will have to carry the costs of this behaviour.

New World slave societies Essay

Coercion and abuse experienced by enslaved people in New World slave societies defecate tended to steering on violence. This is how it should be because experiencing or witnessing violence was indeed an everyday part of life for slaves. Violence inflicted by slave holders on enslaved people did not take place in a vacuum. It was also meet with and often proceeded by abusive words. Yet while debates around negotiation, slave resistance and paternalism focus in detail on the cultural and discursive context of these relationships, discussions of violence tend to home in on their purely physical aspects.I pull up stakes be discussing the context of violence in a society undergoing the transition from slavery to a post slave society in the West Indies. black language was sometimes employ in place of physical penalisation and served as a substitute for personal violence in situations where physical punishment was not allowed. A period known as the apprenticeship period in Jamaica, 18 34-38 slaveholders lost the legal right to directly punish their un-free workers so instead used abusive language.But fear is fear whether it is felt physically or verbally the threat was still present. The people of the West Indies today are in the first place of African decent. Important minorities are East Indians, mainly Trinidad, Chinese and Europeans of British, French, Spanish, Dutch and Portuguese. There are also many people of mixed blood and racial and cultural mixtures that makes the West Indies one of the more cosmopolitan areas of the world. The most important industry in the past and in the present day is the growing of dent cane.Other crops include citrus fruit, bananas, spices, coca, coffee, tobacco and coconuts. All of these are agricultural and very labor intensive. The British colonialization of the West Indies brought slavery into the social context. Toussaint Louverture direct a successful revolt in Haiti. The efforts of Englishmen like William Wilberforce he lped bring an end to the slave trade to the New World and eventually led to the emancipation of slaves in British colonies.When European countries began their overseas explorations and colonization in the 15th century, the institution of slavery experienced a revolution. The discovery of the West Indies opened a in the raw era. In every colony prosperity depended upon the production of some article which could be profitably exported, such as coffee, sugar and indigo. These crops called for large scale operations and cheap labor. Wage laborers were not available and it was necessary to resort to some type of compulsion to secure workers.The Indian appeared to be the obvious answer, utilized the institutions of contributory labor and repartimiento, the granting of land along with the Indians living on it. The Indians proved unsuitable for forced labor. They died off rapidly under oppression and even resorted to mass suicide and infanticide. Their number declined to the point of ext inction. The Europeans turned to the African as a solution to their labor problems. The African was not unknown to Europeans prior to the 15th century, but thither were very few Africans in Europe.The Portuguese exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa brought back two African slaves and subsequent expeditions resulted in the purchase or capture of other(a) slaves. At this time Portugal faced a manpower shortage and African slaves proved to be the solution to its problems. By 1460, 700 to 800 were being imported annually. Spain soon followed the archetype of Portugal and adopted the importation of African slaves. It was not surprising that the colonists in the New World should have thought of the African slave when they needed labor.

Essay on Sartre’s “Man Is Condemned to Be Free” Essay

When Sartre writes that man is condemned to be free, he is elaborating on the statement man is liable for everything he does. Provided that immortal does not exist, man must live his condemned life of freedom without any values or commands that could legitimize his behavior.Furthermore, man has no style of justification or cause man has no excuse for his actions, because he has chosen them on his proclaim, out of his own freedom. Although freedom is traditionally characteristic of good, Sartre describes it most as a burden, because of his belief that God does not exist. When man discovers that he is without excuse, he has come to realize that he cannot find anything to depend on for without God, everything is permitted.Also, because on that point is no outside force driving every man, each man as an individual is responsible for shaping the image of man, or inventing man. Assuming that God in the heavens is not laying out the afterlife and that we are all responsible for ourse lves, at every instant man is condemned to invent man, for in that location is no definition of man except what we make it pg. 380, textbook.Furthermore, Sartre explains how each man creates his own morality. Because every man is free to do what they want and make their own decisions, they sometimes are put in a situation where they must choose between two different modes of action pg. 381, textbook. If God existed and made the future as he wanted it, man would not have to make these decisions. In choosing between these two paths, man must create what he unfeignedly believes in. This is choosing morality.In choosing, man develops his own morals and beliefs which result in his individual path of principles. Obviously, in some situations you may have chosen differently than another(prenominal) person, proving that something that means a lot to one person may in turn mean nothing to you.

Bill Sikes in ‘Oliver Twist’ Essay

This device is important as it helps with the presentation of Bill Sikes, as it emphasises the different actions which he carries out when killing Nancy, it suggests how determined he is on expressing his yellow bile and asserting his authority. One of the last lines which Sikes says to Nancy is You know you she-devil, this illustrates his anger and through the little words which he says, what Sikes does say is of importance, because it is spoken in such a concise manner.Dickens also presents in this extract, as Sikes walks into the room where Nancy is, Nancy who appears to be in a situation where, she is pleading him to spare her life. She says to Sikes Then spare my life which implies how do-or-die(a) she is, and how Sikes has the upper hand in this situation, in the text. The use of the word cried from the original extract further suggests the urgency in her voice as she tries to justify her actions to Sikes, who has already gone in to the room, with the intent to kill Nancy.Bo th the use of few lines and the pleading of Nancy are replicated somewhat in the fritter adaptation however Nancy does not take aim the opportunity to explain and justify her actions in the film adaptation. The film uses various camera gos as a device, for example a low angle shot for Sikes, to make him appear more powerful in the situation, and the high angle shot for Nancy, suggesting she is vulnerable and weak.There is a point of view shot, immediately after Sikes has realised he has killed Nancy to suggest the realisation of his own actions, and it helps to see what has happened from the characters viewpoint. The use of medical specialty is another device within the film adaptation utilize to present the character of Bill Sikes, which can clearly not be included in the original text. There is no initial audio, as the absence of music, the silence, suggests the great anger which Sikes is feeling. The music is mainly diegetic, quite silent, as it includes sounds of breathing and movement and so on.During the period after Nancy is killed, soft music is played, with no lyrics to suggest it is quite sad, and also implying there is very little to say as Nancy has been killed. Therefore there have been a number of devices which have been used with the character of Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist, some which have been included in both the original text and film adaptation, such as the choice of giving a small number of lines to Sikes. However there have been some devices, from the filmmakers craft, which can only be used in a film, which include the camera angles and music.

Churches do to become a better reflection of Christianity

We must acknowledge that as a church, we need to become better. Unless we admit that we need to improve, we will never strive to be a better reflection of Christianity. As a church, we should help each other point out what is do our weaknesses and shortcomings in unity and in humility. Never be content. Seek for improvement on a fastness basis. As a diverse group with collective beliefs, how sight we work as united Christians? What end we do to be a better brother or sister to our fellow church members? How can we help our neighbors? What can we do for our community?How can we show non-believers that the Christian life Is the life they should quest after? How can we be a better reflection of our church and of Christianity? These be some questions that we should ask unitedly and seek the answers, together. When outsiders and non-believers see that we are united, they too shall witness Gods love that binds us Christians as one large church, one big family. ) Sadly, without the atmosphere of revitalization meeting, many Christians lapse into something inferior to the Christian norm. Christian culture declines. (Towns, nog 131) Towns pointed out that with the absence of the atmosphere of revival, Christians fall out of the Christian path. My question is why must revival end? This is a common mistake most churches do. As soon as the mission was fulfilled, we fling away thinking that what we had started/had Just revived will flourish on its own. My challenge, therefore, is continuous revival. Pursue revival not only to the outsiders, non-believers and the nest that have left the Christian path, but also within the sight of our church.When a farmer plants his crops, he does not leave it to tend on its own, he will uphold visiting his crops, trim the weeds that surround it, water the plants, and make sure that it has what it needs to grow and thrive. We are like the farmer, and our church is our crop, we are responsible for the growth and progress of our Ch ristian community. We should never cease bring to our church or our community. If we keep that light burning, we will be able to keep our church stimulate in working together to be better Christians and followers of Jesus Christ.

Three most important elements that contribute to success

Three almost Important sections that contribute to success In clientele doing. It is said that, nothing ventured, nothing gained to indicate that soul should do business if he or she wants to be rich. However, business is not easy and being favored in business doing is a much difficult thing. I myself think that there are trinity most measurable elements that contribute to success in business doing. First and foremost, One of the most important factor that contributes to success In business doing Is the employer.In fact, the leaders are who set up and operate assorted components of a business such as direction In enterprise, human supervision, choosing target markets and calling for investment. Actually, in order to establish a business, presidents flummox to carefully think about what they will sell and who their customers are. In addition, good employers will know how to find out best employees who also contribute to success of business and have flexible and suitable poli cies to keep employees faithful for a long time.Moreover, they themselves will coverer potential markets with discordant ways and develop It the support of effective co-workers. Another hard responsibility of masters is calling for investment. It is a difficult progress that requires them to concentrate their own capacity and experiences to convince investors believe in their products and potential develop in the future. So, the leaders who make huge and main success of a enterprise. Another main element contributing to success in business doing is the government support. In order to create favorable conditions for business community, the overspent whitethorn offer preferential policy In tax.Accordingly, there will be a period of 5-10 historic period when businessmen enjoy tax exemption or reduction. Furthermore, the government may give priority to businessmen by assigning land plots as business location with low land expend right. in that location will be more support in site clearance, too. Businessmen can have more advantages in selling their products as they do not bother to find market. The government will use subsidy policy by which businessmen commodity are secured In contracts or enhanced by free remonstration. Last but not least, it is intersection technology that affect enterprises business.This can be distinctly proved in the current society with high competition. Truly, the more are the customers requirements stern the more does enterprises production line need to be improved better. For example, one of the most successful Vietnamese products In the existence Is pottery of Mini Long company. At first, It was built up from craft villages and almost pottery products were make by workmen who have good opacity, then this company invested a lot of modern technological lines to formulate much more beautiful pottery products.Nowadays, they have been exporting many products to a great merchandise of different nations consisting of markets with h igh criteria such as Europe, United Kingdom, united State This demonstration represents the success by using modern technology in producing progress. In conclusion, to succeed In business doing we need to have a lot of different think that are most important and it is elements that contribute to success in business doing.

Michael’s Reflective Paper Essay

* Who am I? What aliveness buzz offs made me who I am to twenty-four hours? Was it my family, my social environment where I went to school, the groups, or organizations that I belonged to, or was it certain sustenance events that determine me? * This paper is my attempt to show that my family and social environment, my behavior experiences from childhood to present influenced me to be the several(prenominal) champion that I am today and who I get out be in the future.As I theorize upon my manner, at the age of forty-nine, I have come to the conclusion that my family and social environment when growing up, animate(a) cancer in my twenties, and getting married in my thirties are the main social influences and life events that have shaped who I am today and who I want to become in the future. both one of these experiences has given me something learning to be independent from family attitudes dealing with the state of uncertainty, which comes with the ailment tariff of h ymeneals and the importance to find the survey of expertise for effective work.All these insights can be described as building effective relationships with hoi polloi and developing self-understanding on different levels. * To understand my family life, and why I discover that their negative attitudes to me shaped me to be a better person, I runner have to give you some background on my family and me. The background of my family clarifies how important for me was to be independent from this alienating environment. My gravel died when I was solo a year old and my overprotect raised my aged(a) crony Kevin and me by himself until he met my stepmother.My male parent remarried and had my two stepbrothers William and Robert. My father was a strict disciplinarian, racist, drank a lot, and worked as a machinist at a refinery plant. My stepmother was a homemaker as my father did non approve of her working and felt that she needed to be at home taking care of the children. My stepm other came from an orphanage, had polio in her left hand. She was also an alcoholic, meaning that she was compressed when drunk in addition, she was a chain smoker.Kevin was the oldest son one and a half years older than me (and my fathers favorite one), I was the middle child, William was five years younger than me and was diagnosed at an too soon age as having severe fear deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) Robert was the youngest. Witt and Mossler (2010) quote the longitudinal look into study which has sh feature that the attitudes of parents towards children rather than the practices of raising children shape our personality in adulthood (Ch. 1, p. 11). It is evident that lack of my fathers attention has influenced me a lot, stimulating me to attract my parents attention, for better or for worse.The authors also stress on the importance of the environment of growing up, both social and physical (Witt & Mossler, 2010, Ch. 1, p. 13). We lived in a relatively first gear middle class white community in Beaumont, Texas next door to my fathers brother and his family. The area where we lived in was close to the outskirts of Beaumont and was nestled back in the woods, so the woods were our playground. This could create the looking of abandonment, but it was also empowering somehow, as I learned by these circumstances to rely on myself.Palkovitz, Marks, Appleby, and Holmes (2002) hold dear the relationship between parents and children as a complex unit consisting of father factors, co parental factors, mother factors, child factors, and contextual factors (p. 8). It is evident that in my family, there was disintegration in a sense on all levels. It was interesting to discover that, according to the study by Palkovitz, Marks, Appleby, and Holmes (2002), my fathers attitude was shaped by his experience in romantic relationships and then projected upon children (p. 8). I had to develop independence from this terrible emotional context.My relationship with my f ather caused me to be non-racist, disciplined, and extroverted, as my father was a strict disciplinarian, controlling, and racist man. He gave all his attention to my older brother and ignored me unless I did something that passioned him. His treatment of me caused me to crave his attention and to seek to please him until I reached my teenage years and decided that I did not want to be like my father. I rebelled against his control upon me. He tried to control what I did later school, how I wore my hair, how I thought, and what I wanted to be when I graduated high school.I was deeply afraid of him when I was a child, and only when I became a young adult did I see that what he was doing to me was wrong. I started standing up for myself. I started seeking attention outside my family and I got a job after school so that I started earning my own money. That allowed me to purchase my own clothes, get my haircut how I wanted, and purchase my first car that gave me the freedom to escape from my dysfunctional family on a daily basis. My first car and earning my own money gave me the ability to distance myself from my family.However, later circumstances of my life taught me that people can also be supporting and self-reliance is not enough. When I was in my early twenties working and going to college, I developed Hodgkins disease that has also changed my personality. Hodgkins is a form of cancer that affects the lymphatic system. the like other forms of cancer, it is believed to cause the feelings of uncertainty, lack of control, anxiety, isolation, discomfort, and last but not least re-definition of goals and roles (Halldorsdottir & Hamrin, 1996, p. 34).On one hand, one feels that he has to re-define his place in the society on another hand, people care about those with the disease more and help more (at least they are supposed to do so). I experienced how it was not to have the control upon my life, but also how it was to be cared for by others. Anyway, when one is ill and so plainly dependent upon the society, the natural question comes Did I do anything wrong? And what was it? Often cancer is associated with suppressed anger and a desire to please other (or at least attract attention) (Broderick, 1996, p. 14), and this really could be my case.I must admit that this understanding came along with serious heart problems. Still, illness did not prevent me from shouldering duty in work and family life, as well as from the joys of both. I met my wife during my thirties when I was ever-changing my careers from being a technician to a salesperson. Interestingly, psychologists nowadays view professional development of an individual as an current process (not limited to certain age group), the first stage of which is exploration (Smart & Peterson, 1997, p. 59).So, I was engaged in a kind of double exploration, searching for new ways in professional life as well as personal, consciously or not. In addition, like a career, marriage is a serious responsibility that implies both joyful outcomes and stress together with work on oneself. This personal responsibility has changed me a lot, teaching how to meet the needs of another person with whom I have been living day by day for a long time. I find the recommendations given by Witt and Mossler (2010, Ch. 3, p. 37) helpful, though gainsay sometimes.People are happy in marriage when they support each other materially and emotionally, not forgetting to be positive, share feelings, thank each other, express affection, and do certain tasks together. In prolonged perspective, my family life and work taught me how to be productive and understanding in relationships with people and how to maintain stability in the changing world around and in the situations when inner conflicts arise. That is why in my future, I want to pass on the knowledge that my occupation as a sales manager has given to me.Perhaps I will start organizing some training sessions. This may also help to deepen my co mpetence in the field of sales and on the level of personal communication, as people may share their valuable experience with me on the trainings. As I reflect upon my life now, from quite a distance, I have conclude that several events were the strongest in making me the person I am at present. They were my family and social environment in childhood, surviving cancer in my twenties, and getting married in my thirties.My family life stimulated me to earn living independently, cancer survival was essential in understanding my own potential and the ability to help of the people around, and marriage has given me the notion of responsibility. The dark years and events turn out to be ambivalent in the sense that they have given me certain experience and understanding of myself. Those main social influences and life events that I described in this paper have shaped my present personality and my thoughts about the future.

Tiger Brands Limited Essay

Tiger Brands Limited, a Top 40 JSE Limited company whose footprint extends across the African continent and beyond, is one of the largest manufacturers and marketers of FMCG products in Southern Africa, and has been for several decades.Tiger Brands has been built over several decades through and through the acquisition and clustering of businesses which own leading food, home and personal c be brands. Its success is pornographic and maintained through the perpetual renovation and innovation of its brands, while its approach to expansion, acquisitions and joint ventures has given grasp to a distribution network that now spans more than 22 African countries.The Group focus is on the core business of FMCG categories that spread synergy across the value chain which a broad basket of categories spans food, home and personal care as well as baby products. The wide range of brands are underpinned by comprehensive research and meaningful insights into each of the markets in which Tiger B rands operates.Tiger Brands is without question a worldclass operation and will continue to hold and grow its position through eternal investment in every asset of the business, be it in people, brands, technology, efficiency, quality or sustainability.

Business Decision Making

The methodology for this report entrust counseling upon both pristine and subsidiary interrogation methods which will be used to obtain the opinions of the asked passer. Needled et-al (2003) states that primary enquiry mainly consists of entropy collected by an organization, or individual, for their own purposes and ar world-widely collated first lapse from the horses m tote up outh. Needled (2003) offers the opinion that the main methods of collating primary inquiry be through and through conducting face to face Interviews, teleph wizard interview, questionnaires and through direct observations.Primary data shtup be either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research data tend to be more explanatory whereas quantitative is generally more descriptive. The main part of the research for this dispatch will consist of cardinal primary method, survey. The survey questi whizd passers within Princess to determine what they think or so the Princess. This method has b een chosen as it is easy method to collate consider adequate data and it is a comparatively cheap method of collating the data.To ensure response range were mel wretcheded, the passers were asked face to face. I have chosen to opt a turn inst a paper based System as Needled et-al (2003) offers the argument that response rates to costal systems argon often as low as 30% and I feel this method may occupy in bias to the overall conclusion. There the alternative option of soulfulnessally distributing and collecting the surveys for which Sweeten (2002) claims can growth the response rate to al most(prenominal) 70%.However attached the short timescales for the project I simply public figureate to sample the views of 20 people. Questionnaires ar quite popular when collecting data, but are difficult to design and often need many drafts sooner having a lowest questionnaire. These drafts are called pilot questionnaires. Again because of the given short time call I was only fit ted design one pilot. It emerged that the questionnaire was too long. The final questionnaire was accordingly amended by the KISS possibleness- keep it short and simple.Random sampling was used as non hit-or-miss sampling is impracticable and often actually costly in terms of time. afterwards collecting the primary data, the data was then exported into Microsoft Excel to provide a more professional presentation for this document in providing professional graphical records and scratchings. Secondary research All methods of data collection supply quantitative data ( make senses, statistics) or qualitative data (usually words or text).Secondary data is data that has already been collected by soulfulness else for a different purpose as the investigator. primary(prenominal) methods that is used to for the collection Of secondary data entropy supplied by a marketing organization Annual company reports Government statistics / surveys Academic surveys Company data (payroll details, minutes of meetings, accounts of sales of goods or services) Whilst theory is a crucial factor in academic culture and organisational success leading academics offer different views on it effectiveness.Saunders et-al (2003) explains that secondary research, especially academic journals, re the most important source for any research because they are evaluated by academic peers prior to number therefore generally of good tone of voice. Gharry (1995) offers the opinion that secondary research is has there are major returnss of secondary research mainly through savings in time, money and resources as academic literature from divers(a) sources is widely available and easily obtainable.However Needled et-al (2003) warns that the education may non always be of good feeling, may non represent the whole picture and the research could be out of date. These opinions were considered whilst conducting the literature review. After having contacted the Princess get department the hea d was that due to the fact that the Princess is a new evolution, secondary data was non available. shack Its The layout of the questionnaire was divided in three parts introductory questions, main questions and final questions.Topic What do you think of the Princess victimisation? Number of questioned people 20 Introductory questions The introductory questions are of assistance to find out general information intimately the questioned person. 1. Gender 2. Age group 3. Employment status 4. Marital status Main questions Main questions are in place in order to gather information about the upshot of the question naira. 5. Purpose of the visit 6. Preferred time to visit 7. Does it meet expectations? 8. What were the expectations? 9. Affect on Setters some some another(prenominal)wise in high spirits street sellers and restaurants 10.Overall affect of the Princess Shopping Centre to Exeter Final questions The final questions help to calm good deal and relax from the main par t. It can also pass throughn as fun part. 11. darling new shop 12. Favorite new restaurant/cafe The Upper Crust Memo To Quality Control Manager From tugboat Vic Sicken c Date January 31, 2015 Re Result of samples 65 loaves of bread with a weight float of 780-830 g Average weight (mean) of loaves 804. 74 g The middle loaf (median) weighs 804. 9 g The most common (mode) loaf weight is 804. 9 g The Standard deviation of each loaf is 9. G The weight of the begin quartile is (IQ) is 798. 48 g Q = Median = 804. 9 g The weight of the upper quartile is (Q) is 811. 1 g The intrauterine range is 12. 62 g Box + Whisker plot Due to wastage we woolly 805 loaves Task 5 Correlation The correlation is one of the most common and most useful statistics. A correlation is a single number that describes the degree of consanguinity amongst dickens variables. If points in dissolve plot cluster close to the line then there is a blind drunk correlation in place and if points are more widely sca ttered the correlation is weak.Positive correlation If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a irresponsible correlation. An example would be height and weight. Taller people tend to be heavier. Negative correlation If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation. An example would be height above sea level and temperature. As you rise the mountain (increase n height) it gets colder (decrease in temperature).No correlation A zero correlation occurs when there is no kindred between variables. The picture below envisions a guide to the strength of correlation Strengths of correlations 1 . Correlation enables the detective to examine naturally occurring variables that perhaps unethical or impractical to test experimentally. For instance, it would be unethical to study out an experiment on whether smoking causes lung cancer. 2. Correlation enables the researcher to litely and easily see if there is a descent between variables. This Can then be displayed in a replica form.Limitations of correlations 1 . Correlation is not and cannot be taken to imply causation. Even if there is a actually strong relationship between dickens variables we cannot assume that one causes the other. For example suppose we found a confirming correlation between watching violence on T. V. And violent manner in teenage long time. It could be that the cause of both these is a third (irrelevant) variable say for example, growing up in a violent home and that both the watching of T. V. And the violent sort are the outcome of this. . Correlation does not allow us to go beyond the data that is given. For example suppose it was found that there was a relationship between time spent on home melt down (112 hour to 3 hours) and number of G. C. S. E. Passes (1 to 6). It would not be correct to conclude from this that spending 6 hours on homewor k would be likely to bring forth 12 G. C. S. E. Passes 5 A + B. Rest It The older the car gets (increase) the less is it worth (decrease). The scatter diagram above shows that the correlation is stronger after the first two years.There is no straight line relationship. The points on the graph with couple of exceptions form a curve which suggests it is not a linear relationship. The explanation of partial in the correlation result means that it is not 100% correlated because of other factors that puzzle outd it. Coefficient of determination 65. 61 % of the behavior of y is determined by x + 34. 39 % by other factors. The aim of regression psychoanalysis is to find out the values of parameters for a function that cause the function to best fit a bent of data observations that its provided.In linear regression, the function is a linear (straight-line) comparability. The equation and the table above show that the value of the car decreases by a constant amount each year after its p urchase. The succeeding(a) linear function loud predict its value Value = legal injury + departed*age Value, the reliant variable, is the value of the car, age is the age of the car. The regression analysis will determine the best values of the two parameters, price, the estimated value when age is O (I. E. , when the car was new), departed, the depreciation that takes place each year.The value of departed will be negative because the car loses value as age increases. However as we can see in the table after 12 years the equation gives a negative value. This would be not possible in reality. A car cannot be worth E-340. 06. The problem with the equitation is that it is not realistic. The equation is only correct in terms Of figures. E. The equation does not include the factors that can influence the price of a used car. It only considers the age of the car. However there can be several other factors that can influence the price of a used car.Mileage Color- In other words, some co lors, like ROI discolour Pearl, appeal only to a small segment of the population and brings down the cars worth in many eyes Fuel type Engine size Transmission Number of doors Private or trade seller Trade seller are always more expensive as principal adds profit on the actual value of the car. Previous owner For example if a elderly person was the previous owner it is very likely that the car was only used for short distances (shopping, doctor consultations) On the other hand if the car was used at a driving school then it is very likely that the car was not treated well from the learners. F. Business decision makers need to find out very often the casual relationship between two variables. For instance, the relationship between interest rates and consumer expenditure. Furthermore a financial analyst may use regression and correlation to help visualise the relationship of a financial ratio to a set of other variables in business. Correlations can be helpful in business. Once a correlation is identified, organizations can determine if the correlation indicates causation. With this information, the company can develop methods to influence the correlation to the organizations benefit.Task AAA. Total float The longest the start of an activity can be decelerate from its earliest start time (EST) without delaying the project. Free float The longest an activity can be delayed from its EST without delaying the EST of any immediately following activities. By looking at the table, those tasks without a total float (I . E. Zero) are considered critical and coincidentally are mound on the critical path. It is therefore important that these tasks are not delayed in order to roll in the hay the project on time as planned.Recognizing and integrating float is very important. For example, those tasks that do carry float may have resources (labor, capital, equipment, etc) that could be used elsewhere to complete other tasks quicker. Also, for those tasks that do carry f loat, any delays can be accepted. As the resource diagram below shows, 6 assistants are required for the theorise. Furthermore the whole procedure will take 25 days. After rescheduling the activities only 4 assistants are required. Apart from this the whole procedure will take 21 days. 70.Critical Path summary (CPA) is a planning and project management tool. It can help make sure a project is completed as quickly as possible, and resources used as efficiently as possible. The business is able to give the customer exact information much(prenominal) as finish date, required assistants. Furthermore, most projects come across with delays or something unexpected, so theatre directors need to use tool such as CPA to reminder the project and take quick action to resolve any problems. This enables the business to avoid any delays and the consequential customer complaints.Business Decision Making lead in todays organizations is a tough business. organizational leading face a number o f significant challenges as their jobs, and the world around them, become increasingly entangled (Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001). Trends such as organizational delayering, rapid technological advances, the pro bearingration of teambased organizations, and increased employee empowerment require that leaders aline their techniques and styles of lead to meet these new challenges.In the face of all these changes, researchers and management education specialists are working to find methods to develop more effective leaders. Old techniques of knowledge are criticized and questioned, and new techniques are createdoften before they are adequately tested and thoroughly understood. New techniques can become instant fads. In new-fangled years, there has been an explosion of interest in lead.The bulk of research efforts has gone into trying to understand leadhow it operates and into identifying the characteristics of effective leaders. Although interpersonal relationships have always held i mportance within the organizational literature (Blau, 1964), a rivet on relative perspectives is recently experiencing renewed interest in organizational behavior and leading research (Day, 2000). According to Hunt and Dodge (2001), relational perspectives are at the forefront of emerging leading thrusts.A relational focus is one that moves beyond unidirectional or even reciprocal leaderfollower relationships to one that recognizes leaders wherever it occurs, is not restricted to a single or even small set of formal or informal leaders, and in its strongest form, functions as a dynamic system embedding leading, environmental, and organizational aspects (Hunt & Dodge, 2001, p. 448). An vault of heaven of research that speaks directly to leadership development, as defined by Day (2000), is LeaderMember diversify (LMX) theory.Researchers working with this leadership model have been investigating the value of developing effective work relationships between managers and subordinat es for the past 30. During this time, LMX has shown the value of high- lumber relationships and the problems associated with lower look relationships. The purpose of this work is to discuss LMX theory, research, and practice on leadership development. The paper begins by briefly reviewing the value of relationships from a social capital perspective and then defines leadership relative to relationships.Leadership is engaging in behaviors that create change, and creating change requires influence. To be leaders, therefore, individuals need to have and effectively use influence. Influence is the power to affect others the ability to produce outcomes due to some personal characteristic that gets others to follow. By definition, influence is inherently interpersonal. Influence takes place within the context of interpersonal relationships. According to relational leadership theories, influence comes from relationships.Relational perspectives in leadership view leadership as generated thr ough mutual influence that results from the development of trust, respect, and covenant among dyad members. LMX theory describes this influence as being created through stages of relationship building. Individuals begin at a stranger stage, get to know one another through testing processes, and as a result of the testing process, either progress to an advanced stage of leadership development (e. g., partnership) or endure at lower levels of relationship development (e. g. , acquaintance or stranger). Those who attain more advanced stages of relationship buildingand thus develop more effective relationships with interdependent others (e. g. , managers and other higher-ups, subordinates, peers, clients, external constituents)are able to more effectively set their sparing consumptions. More effective, or high- character reference, leader member switchs are described as leadership rather than as supervisory relationships.High-quality relationships are considered mature partnership s based on respect, trust, and mutual obligation for one another (Graen& Uhl-Bien, 1995). These relationships go beyond the formal contract and generate personal power (i. e. , influence given by the other), rather than position power or authority. They are also characterized by unstrained followership, meaning employees are driven by intrinsic as opposed to extrinsic motivation. As a result, dyad partners (i. e., individuals enmeshd in an exchange) act because they want to, not because they have to. Research on LMX shows that more effectively developed relationships have significant and positive associations with performance, organizational commitment, employee citizenship behavior (i. e. , extra-role behavior), job satisfaction, delegation and connection in decision making, and enhanced career development opportunities. These relationships are negatively related to turnover, job problems, and role conflict and ambiguity.The benefits of high-quality relationships come from rela tional resources they create. Such resources include durable obligations (e. g. , arising from feelings of gratitude, respect, and friendship), network contacts and connections (including privileged access to information and opportunities, social status, and reputation of influential others), and the ability to have control surface information exchanges with those around them (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). Relationships that do not develop so well are considered lower quality.These relationships are not as beneficial for the individuals elusive or for the organization as a whole. Lower quality relationships are described as contractually defined, formal exchanges based on limited trust and in-role interactions (Uhl-Bien et al. , 2000). These types of relationships generate management rather than leadership. They are characterized by lack of mutual respect, formal downward communications, little mutual understanding, limited sign and commitment for one another, and no mutual obligati on (i. e. , a stranger relationship).Findings have shown that lower quality relationships are negatively related to satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors, and commitment, and are positively related to turnover. Thus, based on relational leadership theory, effective relationships may generate mutual influence and understanding that allow leaders to more effectively perform their roles. In contrast to hierarchical and leader-dominated perspectives on relational differentiation, the goal and responsibility of leadership should be to work to develop effective relationships more broadly with interdependent others, rather than with only a group of sure assistants.Drawing from the foundations established by Day (2000), leadership development needs to be considered (a) beyond hierarchical notions of managersubordinate relationships, (b) as the responsibility of both members of the dyad (rather than leader-controlled), and (c) with allowance for more variability in what is cons idered a high-quality, or effective, relationship.A high-quality exchange is characterized by positive leadership processes that are indicative of a social exchange, such as increased subordinate job latitude and influence in decision making, more open and honest subordinate communication with the supervisor, and greater trust and loyalty among dyad members (Cogliser & Schriesheim, 2000). Low-quality LMX relationships are more economic or transactional in nature, and dyadic behaviors rarely progress beyond what is specified in the employment contract.With touch on to leadership development, those subordinates interested in leadership development receive it as part of the relationship contract. Those that are not interested in becoming leaders do not receive leadership development as part of their psychological contract and receive a different allocation of on-the-job training. stiff organizations have units that are tied together, through linking-pin positions, where members in th ese organizations become more aware of problems at lower levels in the system and coordinate activities efficiently through accurate flows of information, influence, and resources among the units involved.The persons occupying these linking-pin positions are integrated members in two or more groups and play the role of both supervisor and subordinate. Graen and his colleagues explored the effectiveness of the LMX relationship between incumbents of linking-pin positions and their supervisors and the behavior, attitudes, and handling of lower level members (Graen, Cashman, Ginsburgh, & Schiemann, 1977). They found that the quality of LMX of the linking-pin incumbent was related to the quality of working life of the followers who reported to the linking pin.When subordinates develop high-quality exchanges with their bosses, they receive greater influence, latitude, support, and attention from their bosses, and they experience a more desirable topographic point overall. These researche rs continued by pointing out that the quality of members in a higher dyad (hierarchically) contributed to the quality of life of members in hierarchically lower dyads. The LMX model clearly has utility for its application to leadership development.Empirical studies have support the relationship of high-quality exchanges with positive organizational outcomes, and the broader leadership literature supports the cascading or waterfall effect of the supervisors leadership behavior impacting the subordinates. There is a clear need for methods that more effectively socialize junior managers for executive positions. Dyad-level coach may be one of the most effective means for transmitting organizational culture, thereby promoting the organizations substance values.Dyad management development has not been utilized to the full extent possible to leverage the potential of the kitten of executive talent. The LMX literature says that LMX differentiation, in which leaders have higher quality re lationships with some subordinates and lower quality relationships with others, occurs because leaders do not have time (or the need) to generate highquality relationships with everyone. Therefore, they develop a group of swear assistants to help them perform the work of the unit.These trusted assistants would supposedly be the best or most bona fide employees in the unit. Twenty years after the inception of the theory, Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) argued that the creation of in-groups and out-groups within work units is not beneficial, and that kind of leaders should strive to develop high-quality relationships with all subordinates. They do this by making the offer of high-quality relationships to all and then through testing processes, different quality relationships result (Uhl-Bien et al., 2000). This perspective allows for the fact that all relationships may not (and likely will not) reach high quality, but at least the dyad members both take part in how the relationship devel ops (rather than the leader determining who will be the trusted assistants) and have the fortune to create a high-quality relationship. This perspective also recognizes that a focus on differentiation rather than on high-quality relationships offered to all creates tremendous opportunity for lost potential in organizations.When individuals are not fully committed (or are dissatisfied), they will withdraw discretionary behaviors that benefit others or the organization (e. g. , helping, altruism, civic behaviors). These discretionary behaviors are beneficial to the organization, and as a result, much attention has been given in the literature to determining when and how individuals engage in these behaviors. Instead of LMX differentiation, therefore, goal should be for individuals to strive to have influence with one another (and with higher-ups).With the support of a relationship, individuals are freer to open up and provide one another with more accurate and complete information ( Avolio, 1999) so they can provide the real information (the real story). This goes both ways with a good relationship comes reduced filtering ( halting back) of information, both up and down the hierarchy. It allows individuals to share with one another the lowering truth. Too many leaders do not have good information, and too many hold back in being truthful with their subordinates.If to sustain this beyond managers to leaders more broadly, then organizational members need to be comfortable with providing information to one another, and this comes with having effective work relationships. Remembering that effective leaders are defined as those who use influence to create change, individuals abilities to be effective leaders are directly related to their ability to have influence in the organization. Since effective work relationships can extend individuals influence networks, those who have more effective relationships with others will likely have more opportunity to gain and use influence.Therefore, leadership effectiveness is likely enhanced by the ability to build effective work relationships with a broader range of interdependent others. In a study of communications within Leader-Member Exchanges, Schiemann ( 1977) found that those members with comparatively higher quality LMXs communicated more frequently with their managers about administrative and technical matters than did members with relatively lower quality LMXs. These results were cross-validated on a holdout sample of managers.Apparently, there is much more communication in higher quality LMXs than in the lower quality LMXs. Thus, effective communications are an important aspect of the development of high-quality LMXs. Flautos (1999) study is in response to the global question, How are communication and leadership linked? This study force subjects from a variety of organizations in Ohio, eastern Indiana, northern Kentucky, and western West Virginia. Twenty to fifty subjects were force from e ach of nine organizations.Organizations participating in the study were two financial service organizations, a retail sales organization, a military unit, a subsurface coal mining organization, a suburban jurisprudence department, a rural bank branch, a local post office, and a food service organization. Transactional and transformational leadership were measured using subscales of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). A sextuplet-item, three-factor subscale was created for the transformational leadership dimension and a four-item, two-factor subscale was created for the transactional leadership dimension.Subjects responded to each of the behavioural anchored items by selecting one of five responses that applied to their leader. The leader-member exchange dimension was measured by a subscale consisting of the six items of the LMX-6 scale. The LMX-6 scale contains items that measure the three factors of leader-member exchange. Responses are on a five-point Likert-type sca le. The relationship is the highest among all of the variables in the study. This decision supports the conclusions of Day (2000) that communication attributes can distinguish between levels of leader-member exchange quality.The finding also fits into the theoretical manakin of the leader-member advancement to leadership that requires successful communication exchange in order to form the in-group relationship that characterizes high quality leader-member exchange. The communicative competence of the leader, and its affect on communication effectiveness as evidenced by member perception of leader-member agreement, appears to be a necessary precondition for a high quality leader-member exchange relationship. At the lower levels of communication competence, high quality leader-member relationships do not exist.The leader displays charisma by communicating enthusiasm and providing a model, shows individual consideration by direct interaction and providing tailored assistance, and sti mulates intellectual by communicating ideas. Day (2000) defines transformational leaders as leaders who use rhetorical skills to establish a common vision. Not surprisingly, members report a high relationship between transformational leadership and communication competence. In the least squares hierarchical multiple regression analyses, transformational leadership is the best single predictor of communication competence.Transformational leadership is of high quality when the leader exhibits high communication competency. Dyads with high communication competence and low transformational leadership and dyads with low communication competence and high transformational leadership do not exist. Leadership, however it is theoretically or operationally defined, is a social process and involves a relationship between individuals. This social process and this relationship are enacted through communication. These sessions were conducted with all participants in the treatment group.Before and after results, in terms of performance, were compared for this group and for other groups from the department, which were not exposed to the LMX treatment. Productivity increases measured in terms of the quantity of cases handled showed a significant advantage in favor of the group that was trained in LMX. Furthermore, this gain was primarily a function of cause that occurred in a highgrowth need group of subjects. This latter index was included in the study because a job enrichment treatment based on job characteristics theory was introduced, along with the LMX treatment.Any job enrichment effects per se, however, were negated by certain policy changes that were introduced by the organization unknown to the experimenters thus job characteristics theory was not, in fact, tested. A subsequent publication, based on data from the same context, was aimed at determining whether low or high sign LMX subjects were most responsive to the treatment effects. The results clearly indicated th at the low LMX subjects responded most positively to the treatment in terms of both the quality of their leadermember exchanges and the quantity of their productivity.Another report on this project substantiates the moderator effects of growth need strength, but makes no mention of the finding that low quality leadermember exchange translates into greater productivity with the appropriate training. This latter result is most unchanging with theory in that it means that dyadic partnership building applied across the board should result in both low and highquality dyads initially moving with training to highquality relationships. However, if growth need strength is a moderator of the training effect, one would anticipate that it would also moderate the initial dyadic choices as well.In such an event lowquality dyads would not contain many high managed strength people and thus would offer little potential for upward movement. This seeming contradiction is neither explained nor even co nfronted. Growth need strength is not a component of the theory as declared in comprehensive forms. Research on LMXs illustrates the importance of leader-follower relationships. The point here is simply that 30 years of research on LMXs has conclusively demonstrated the effect of exchange quality on a number of important organizational outcomes.Specifically, in a meta-analysis of this area of leadership research, Gerstner and Day (1997) found that the quality of the LMX was importantly related to job performance, satisfaction with supervision, overall satisfaction, commitment, role conflict (negative relation), role clarity, member competence, and turnover intentions (negative relation). After reviewing the extensive LMX literature, Gerstner and Days conclusion was we view the relationship with ones supervisor as a lense through which the consummate work experience is viewed (p. 840).However, although LMX offers evidence to support the value of relational approaches to leadership, many questions still remain about key issues related to leadership development. In particular, a question that needs to be addressed in LMX research is what leads to development of higher and lower quality work relationships (e. g. , antecedents to LMX)? Although past research has investigated antecedents to LMX, a clear picture of what these are and how they operate still has not emerged. References Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development Building the full of life forces in organizations.Thousand Oaks, CA Sage. Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York Wiley. Cogliser, C. C. , & Schriesheim, C. A. (2000). Explori ngworkun itcontex tand leader-membe rexchange A multi-level perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21 (5). Day, D. V. (2000). Leadership development A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11. Flauto, Frank J. (1999). Walking the pour forth The Relationship between Leadership and Communication Competence. Journal of Leadership Studies. Graen, G. B. , & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995).Relationshipbased approach to leadership Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years Applying a multi-level multidomain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6. Hunt, J. G. , & Dodge, G. E. (2001). Leadership d? eja vu all over again. Leadership Quarterly, 11 (4). Nahapiet, J. , & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. honorary society of Management Review, 23 (2). Zaccaro, S. J. , & Klimoski, R. J. (2001). The nature of organizational leadership Understanding the performance imperatives confronting todays leaders. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.